Dynamic mechanical response evaluation of woven carbon fiber reinforced rubber laminated composites under high strain rates | Scientific Reports

Scientific Reports volume 15, Article number: 16711 (2025) Cite this article

795 Accesses

Metrics details

Woven carbon fiber reinforced rubber laminated composites (WCRLC) are increasingly adopted in impact-critical engineering applications such as marine fenders and aerospace buffers, owing to their lightweight and energy absorption/reflection capabilities. However, dynamic mechanical response evaluation of WCRLC under high strain rates remains inadequately characterized. In this study, WCRLC was fabricated using silicon rubber and 2D woven carbon fiber (WCF) with the needled technique. Dynamic mechanical response and energy evolution of WCRLC were investigated using a split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB). The results showed that the stress at both ends of the specimen was in a state of dynamic equilibrium. The peak compressive strength and toughness of WCRLC increased with an increase of strain rate. The energy analysis indicated that with the increase of the number of layers of WCF, WCRLC demonstrated better impact resistance performance including the dynamic toughness, the energy absorption, specific energy absorption, and dissipated to incident energy ratio. Transmitted energy ratio of the five types of WCRLC was less than 1%. The WCRLC with 3 layers of WCF exhibited the highest transmission energy ratio due to balanced fiber-matrix interaction.

Front bumpers, side panels, and roof reinforcements were critical components in high-performance transport vehicles, where energy absorption and reflection were essential to ensure safety and durability under extreme loading conditions. These components were frequently subjected to various forms of impact events, including ballistic impacts, crash scenarios, high-speed collisions, and explosive blasts. These events generated rapid stress loading, extreme temperatures, and severe mechanical deformation1,2. For instance, in aerospace applications, such materials were used in landing gear components to dissipate impact energy during touchdown. Beyond transportation, anti-impact materials were also employed in marine engineering, such as dock fenders that absorb the kinetic energy during ship berthing. To meet these demanding requirements, materials must exhibit a unique combination of high specific strength for weight reduction, exceptional fracture toughness for structural integrity, and superior impact resistance for energy dissipation. Among these materials, silicone rubber stood out due to its viscoelastic properties and polysiloxane backbone3,4, which enabled effective stress distribution and energy absorption under dynamic loading condition. However, the inherent limitations of silicone rubber, such as its relatively low tensile strength and insufficient resistance to high-velocity impacts, have restricted its application in load-bearing structures. To overcome these drawbacks, researchers had reinforced rubber matrices with high-strength fibers such as carbon fibers and aramid fibers5,6. This strategy has led to the development of fiber-reinforced rubber composites, which combined the strain-tolerant behavior of rubber with the stiffness and strength of woven fiber architectures.

The demand for improved protective composites had promoted extensive investigation into the high strain rate behavior of fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs). Thomson et al.7 systematically reviewed the influence of loading rate on the mechanical properties of unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites, highlighting that strength, failure strain, and absorbed energy are all strain-rate dependent. Their findings emphasize the importance of strain-rate-sensitive design in applications where sudden impacts or blast waves occur. Similarly, Watanabe et al.8 studied unidirectional carbon fiber-reinforced laminates and established a multiscale model that was expected to be useful in composites development as it facilitated rapid and exhaustive analysis. Suman et al.9 investigated the shock compressibility of carbon fiber-reinforced composites (CFRC) under controlled impact velocities. The findings elucidated several critical aspects of material behavior under high velocity impacts, offering insights into the interplay between fiber orientation, fiber content, and the matrix material. Xu et al.10 reported that hybrid composites based on carbon and aramid fibers showed significantly improved dynamic performance under ballistic impact. Paul Turner et al.11 investigated the ballistic impact behavior in three-dimensional woven carbon fiber (WCF) polymer composite beams and plates through experiments and simulations. The results suggested the presence of through-the-thickness (TTT) reinforcement could suppress the development of damage remote from the projectile strike location, and to reduce bending deformation within the plate. Liu et al.12 studied the delamination of CFRC caused by impacts by incorporating a traction-separation law into a progressive damage model. The proposed model effectively predicted delamination for both high and low velocity impacts.

To gain insight into the mechanical behavior of materials under impact conditions, the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) test technique had been widely used to characterize the dynamic mechanical properties of materials under high-strain-rate loading since the 1970s3. In the SHPB setup, the specimen was placed between the incident and transmitted bars, where it was subjected to compression waves generated by the impact of a striker bar on the incident bar. This setup allowed for precise measurement of stress-strain responses at strain rates typically ranging from 102 to 104 s− 1, making it suitable for studying materials under dynamic loading conditions2,13,14. SHPB technique had been extensively applied to investigate both rigid materials, such as metals15, rocks16, concrete17, and soft materials including polymers18.

More recently, researchers have adapted SHPB testing to study the behavior of composite laminates, particularly those with complex interfacial architectures or filled matrices. Ye et al.19. conducted a systematic study on the dynamic tensile properties and failure mechanisms of rubber-modified ultra-high-performance engineered cementitious composites. Using a SHPB apparatus, they performed dynamic mechanical tests to determine key parameters such as dynamic splitting tensile strength, dynamic increase factor. Kravchenko et al.20 employed SHPB technique to investigate the impact and compression-after-impact behavior of thin carbon fiber/epoxy plates fabricated using prepregs platelet molding compound. These results were compared with those of a continuous-fiber quasi-isotropic laminate of similar thickness. Mei et al.21 used SHPB technique to evaluate the dynamic compressive behavior of carbon fiber composite sandwich structures across strain rates from 3 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ to 600 s⁻¹. Pulse shapers were applied to achieve dynamic stress equilibrium during testing. Finite element simulations confirmed the increase in compressive strength, linked to enhanced failure strain at high strain rates. Similarly, studies on sandwich structures with polymer and fiber-reinforced skins had highlighted the importance of interfacial bonding and filler distribution in optimizing dynamic performance22,23. These studies had provided valuable insights into the dynamic behavior of materials across a wide range of applications.

Several works have also explored energy absorption capabilities in hybrid structures. For example, Sun et al.24 evaluated energy absorption behavior of Carbon-Kevlar hybrid composite laminates under impact loading and demonstrated that fiber significantly improved failure resistance and energy absorption. Aziz et al.25 employed digital image correlation alongside SHPB to capture the displacement fields in situ.Their results revealed that the strain-rate dependent models of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene indicate a notable difference in strain-rate sensitivity, particularly with tensile strength exhibiting 87% and 60% higher sensitivity compared to the tensile modulus and failure strain, respectively. Omar et al.26 applied compression SHPB testing and static compression to examine how molecular structure influences the compressive behavior of different polyethylene types across a wide strain-rate range, confirming that high-density polyethylene exhibited superior strength and energy absorption, while low-linear-density polyethylene demonstrated greater rate sensitivity. Tarfaoui et al.27 conducted impact tests on both unstitched 2D woven textile composites and stitched 3D woven textile composites using SHPB test method, demonstrating that Z-fiber stitching increased fracture complexity and energy dissipation, thereby enhancing crack propagation resistance without significantly affecting damage initiation strength.

Despite these recent advances, limited research exists on Woven carbon fiber reinforced rubber laminated composites(WCRLC) where the rubber phase remains continuous and soft while the woven fibers provide embedded reinforcement3. This hybrid design has advantages in both flexibility and impact resistance but introduces complex wave propagation phenomena. Additionally, the low modulus of rubber makes SHPB testing more difficult due to wave dispersion and impedance mismatch, leading to potential measurement inaccuracies if not properly calibrated. While some studies have used modified SHPB setups for soft materials, further validation is needed for rubber-based composites.Moreover, the literature shows that most dynamic studies of FRPs focus on brittle thermosets or stiff thermoplastics, with few investigating soft composite laminates with viscoelastic matrices under high strain-rate loading. Therefore, the interaction mechanisms between WCF and silicone rubber matrix under dynamic conditions remain unclear, especially in terms of energy evolution, stress wave attenuation, and interfacial damage. This lack of understanding represents a significant gap in both academic knowledge and practical applications.

In this paper, The SHPB technique is employed to evaluate dynamic mechanical response of WCRLC under high strain rates, and the reliability of SHPB testing for low modulus rubber-based materials is critically assessed. The effects and differences of WCF on the dynamic mechanical properties and energy dissipation of WCRLC were explored. By integrating experimental observation with theoretical interpretation, this work aims to reveal the interaction between soft rubber matrix and stiff woven reinforcements during high-speed loading and failure mechanisms in hybrid soft composites. These findings are expected to contribute to the design of next-generation protective structures for aerospace, marine, and defense industries, where flexibility, durability, and energy absorption are critical.

Vinylmethylsiloxane homopolymer(VMQ, 110-2) was commercially produced by Shanghai Resin Co., China. Fumed SiO2 with a BET surface area of 200 m2/g was purchased from Duwa chemical Co., Shanghai, China. Both WCF (T300-1k) and chopped carbon fiber (CFs) with a length of 6 mm were produced by Nanjing Man Kate Technology CO., LTD, China. Dicumyl peroxide (DP), as vulcanizer was purchased from Dongguang Zhengnian Silicon fluoride materials co., LTD, China. Hydroxy silicone oil (HSO) was purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Shenyang Co., Ltd., China.

The formulations of WCRLC components used in this study were presented in Table 1. The WCRLC specimens tested were prepared using the needle method, as shown in Fig. 1. The raw materials, except for the WCF, were mixed using a mixer (Shanghai Kechuang Co., Ltd., China) at room temperature, with a rotor speed of 10 rpm for 10 min. After uniform milling, the mixture was removed from the mixer and placed in a twin-roll mill (Dongguang Zhenggong Mechanical Electrical Equipment Technology Co., Ltd., China) at 40 °C, with a rotor speed of 20 rpm for 10 min, resulting in a homogeneously mixed sheet. The sheet layers were then arranged to form a thin laminate of specific thickness. Between these layers, WCF was sequentially incorporated using a needling technique and then placed in a mold. The WCRLC with lamination structure was vulcanized in a vulcanizing machine (Dongguan Baolun Precision Instrument Co., Ltd., China) at 150 °C under 5 MPa pressure for 30 min, followed by post-curing at 170 °C for 2 h under ambient pressure. The prepared WCRLC specimens were labeled as S0, S1, S2, S3, and S4, based on the number of WCF plies in the rubber matrix. The specimens had a cylindrical shape, with dimensions of 20 mm in diameter and 10 mm in thickness.

Preparation steps of WCRLC for SHPB testing.

The internal microstructure of the specimens before and after impact was characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM, S-3400 N, Hitachi, Japan), and samples were sprayed with gold coat improve electrical conductivity. The cylindrical specimens were carefully sectioned using a sharp blade along a plane perpendicular to the circular face, making the cut along the diameter of the specimen. SEM observations were focused on the cross-section near the impact surface, specifically at the interface between the first layer of fiber and the rubber matrix in the direction of the impact, corresponding to the region closest to the incident bar in the SHPB setup.

SHPB system was employed in the experimental impact test, as shown in Fig. 2. The bars were made of aluminum alloy with elastic modulus of 70 GPa, a density was 2700 kg/m3 and the longitudinal wave velocity was 5000 m/s. The lengths of the strike bar, incident bar, transmitted bar were 200 mm, 2000 mm and 2000 mm, respectively. The diameter of the bars was 20 mm. The strain gauges were located near the center of the incident bars and the transmission bar interface. Strain gauges were used to record the stress wave pulse on both incident bar and transmitted bar. A specimen was sandwiched between the incident and transmission bar. Both ends of the specimen were coated with vaseline to reduce the friction between the bars and specimen before the testing. A copper pulse shaper was placed at the impact end of the incident bar to reduce high-frequency components in the pulse and mitigate wave dispersion. The speed of the striker bar was measured by the velocimeter installed at the tail of the launcher. The striker velocities ranged from 17 to 30 m/s, corresponding to strain rates of 1700 to 3000 s⁻¹, as measured during the experiments.

The schematic diagram of the SHPB test system.

The SHPB test method was based on two basic assumptions: one − dimensional stress wave assumption and stress uniformity assumption1.During the test, the striker bar was driven by the release of high-pressure air to impact the incident bar at a certain speed, generating stress waves. The stress waves were first shaped by the pulse shaper, and then traveled through the incident bar and acted on the specimen. Upon reaching the interface between the incident bar and specimen, part of the wave was reflected into the incident bar, a portion of the wave was absorbed by the specimen and the remainder was transmitted through the specimen into the transmission bar. The pulse profiles for the incident, transmitted, and reflected waves were recorded by the strain gauges located on the incident and transmission bar. Typical original voltage waveform signals recorded during the test were shown in Fig. 3a. During the loading process, the stress pulse propagating in the compression bar consisted of a completely one − dimensional stress wave and the axes of the striker bar, incident bar, the specimen and transmission bar in the SHPB system, were aligned, ensuring that the experimental conditions fully meet the one − dimensional stress wave assumption28. The elastic modulus of rubber was lower compared those of metal or inorganic non-metal materials, the propagation speed of the stress wave in the WCRLC was very small and the time required for wave propagation in the specimen was relatively long, which could result in a distorted and weak signal. To overcome these disadvantages effects, an aluminum alloy bar apparatus and pulse shapers were used. Figure 3b presented the strain signals transformed from voltage signals as a function of time. As shown in Fig. 3b that the strain–time curve under the superposition of the incident wave εI and the reflected wave εR conformed to the transmitted wave curve εT according to Eq. (1), indicating that stresses at both ends of the specimen were in dynamic equilibrium. This was a necessary precondition to ensure the precision of the stress–strain response of the specimen29. Based on the elastic wave propagation theory and the superposition principle, the measured εI, εR, and εT recorded from the strain gauges were calculated according to the Eq. (1). Elastic wave velocity of the bars was calculated as shown in Eq. (2)30,31.

Where \(\:{E}_{0}\) and \(\:{\rho\:}_{0}\) were Young’s modulus and density of the bars. According to one-dimensional stress wave assumption, the following Eqs. (3)–(5) were used to determine stress \(\:{\sigma\:}_{s}\), strain rate \(\:\dot{\epsilon\:}\) and strain \(\:{\upepsilon\:}\)of the specimen.

Where \(\:{A}_{0}\), \(\:{A}_{s}\) and \(\:{L}_{s}\) were cross-sectional area of the pressure bar and the specimen and length of the specimen.

Typical signal waveform of the specimen: (a) SHPB strain gauge signals; (b) verification of stress uniformity.

The strain rate of S4 as a function of strain was presented in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4, a rapid increase in strain rate was observed up to a plateau at approximately 1700 s− 1, 2500 s− 1 and 3000 s− 1. The plateau observed indicated that constant strain-rate loading was achieved in the experiment due to proper waveform shaping. Such waveform shaping not only homogenized the internal stress of the loaded specimen but also ensured the constant strain − rate deformation of the specimen. These results were in agreement with those of Zhu et al.28. Therefore, the requirements for a nearly ideal transmitted wave and uniform strain rate were met, verifying the reliability of the experiment32.

Strain − rate strain curve of S4.

Figure 5 illustrated the true stress-strain relations of S4 under different strain rates ranging from 1700 s− 1 to 3000 s− 1. As shown in Fig. 5, the response of the specimen exhibited significant strain rate effects, while the overall trend of the curves remained similar. The curves could be roughly divided into three stages. In the first stage, the stress rapidly increased linearly at small strain, which was attributed to strengthening effect as a result of the rapid increase in the internal strain rate of the specimen during the initial stage of loading. In the second stage, the stress gradually rose to reach to yield point with increasing strain; moreover, the yield stress increased with the strain rate. In the third stage, the stress decreased sharply, which was attributed to unloading of compression rather than specimen failure. During the unloading of the specimen, the viscoelastic characteristics of rubber facilitated the recovery of the specimen, resulting in a very small stress amplitude. Overall, the true stress of the S4 specimen increased significantly with the strain rate. This occured because the material could withstand a higher load at high strain rates, as the accumulated damage at a given strain level decreased with increasing strain rate. In other words, for a given stress level, the accumulated deformation (strain) decreased as the strain rate increased, since there was less time for deformation to occur under high strain rates33. This was due to the fact that the time available for damage to develop was reduced at higher loading rates34,35,36. Similarly, it had been reported that materials exhibited stiffer mechanical behavior at high strain rates37,38.

True tress–strain curve of S4 at different strain rates.

Toughness was the comprehensive property involving strength and elongation, which could be expressed as an integral area under a stress-strain curve. The integral area obtained by true stress-strain curves from strain 0 to 0.03 was calculated as the toughness of S4, which the results were shown in Fig. 6. The toughness of S4 was 8.30 MJ/m3, 10.71 MJ/m3 and 11.04 MJ/m3 when the strain rate was 1700 s− 1, 2500 s− 1 and 3000 s− 1, respectively. The results indicated that both strength and toughness of S4 increased with increasing strain rate.

Strain rates effect on toughness of S4.

The true stress-strain curves under 3000 s− 1 strain rates for S0, S1, S2, S3 and S4 were presented in Fig. 7a. It could be observed from the curve that an initial approximately linear elastic phase was followed by a nonlinear increase in stress. The peak compressive stress was reached and then softened. For the softening phase, a sharper drop in stress was observed for S4, compared to S0 or S1 had more slightly decrease in stress following the ultimate strength. Furthermore, the peak compressive stress obtained from Fig. 7a was summarized in Fig. 7b. As shown in Fig. 7b, the peak compressive stress for S1, S2, S3 and S4 were 13.4 MPa, 28.2 MPa, 42.5 MPa and 43.1 MPa, respectively, which increased by 55.81%, 227.91%, 394.17% and 401.16% compared with that of S0, which was 8.6 MPa. Moreover, elastic modulus represented by the slope of the true stress-strain curve in linear stage increased with increasing of WCF layers. The enhancement in stress and modulus of WCRLC was due to the strong interaction between WCF and the matrix. The crack resistance provided by the WCF strengthened the connection within the rubber matrix. Under sustained loading, the load was initially borne by the rubber material and subsequently transferred to the fibers. Since the WCF could be embedded within the rubber-based matrix, the mechanical properties of the composite prepared by the needling method were significantly enhanced39.

True stress–strain curves (a) and compressive strength (b) of WCRLC for 3000 s− 1 the strain rate.

The dynamic toughness was determined by evaluating the area under the true stress-strain curve. Figure 8 showed the dynamic toughness of various specimens tested at an impact rate of 3000 s− 1. It appeared that the dynamic properties depended on the WCF layers. For a given strain, the dynamic toughness increased as the number of WCF layers increased from 0 to 4. The test results indicated that the presence of WCF effectively improved the overall toughness of the composites. In addition, the dynamic toughness increased as the strain rose from the initial compression stage to the densification stage.

Dynamic toughness during impact process.

The calculation formulas for energy change law could be derived from the principles of incident, reflection and transmission of elastic waves at interfaces between different media, as well as from the momentum conservation equation of the wave front. The formulas for calculating the incident energy (WI), reflected energy (WR), transmitted energy (WT), and absorbed energy (WS) during the test were provided in references27,40:

Figure 9 illustrated the detailed the effects of WCF layers on WI, WR, WT, and WS, respectively. It could be seen from Fig. 9, the higher the incident energy, the higher the reflected energy. For about the same incident energy, the transmitted energy of five type materials was much less than the reflected energy and absorbed energy. This phenomenon occurred because when the incident energy reached the contact end between the incident bar and the specimen, the high viscoelasticity of the silicon rubber caused most of the energy to be reflected and absorbed by the specimen, while only a small portion propagated to the transmission bar. Figure 9d demonstrated that the absorbed energy increased with increasing the number of WCF layers. This observation was consistent with the improved compressive strength observed with the incorporation of WCF. The presence of bridging effects under impact enhanced to the dynamic stiffness of the composites, while the rubber provided the viscous components.

Energy of specimens under SHPB high rate impact: (a) incident energy; (b) reflection energy; (c) transmission energy; (d) absorption energy.

In order to further explore the energy dissipation of the composites in the impact process, dissipated to incident energy ratio (η), specific energy absorption (ξ), transmitted energy ratio (λ) were introduced, the calculation formulas were given in Eqs. (10)-(12).

Where Ms represented the mass of the specimen.

The energy dissipation of composites with different WCF layers during the impact process was shown in Fig. 10. Both η and ξ increased with increasing of WCF layer. As illustrated in the Fig. 10c, λ initially increased and then slightly decreased as the number of WCF layers increased, reaching a peak when the WCF layer count was three. Transmitted energy ratio for all the composites was less than 1%, which signified that the majority of the energy was dissipated through internal mechanisms rather than being transmitted through the specimen.

Influence of WCF on energy consumption of specimens: (a) dissipated to incident energy ratio; (b) specific energy absorption; (c) transmitted energy ratio.

The differences in λ between the S3 specimen and others could be attributed to structural and interfacial factors. As observed in the SEM images in Fig. 11a,c,d, the WCRLC specimens fabricated via the needling method exhibit excellent interfacial bonding between the rubber matrix and WCF. Within the WCF, fibers in unidirectional bundles are densely packed, while small gaps exist between warp and weft fiber bundles. After impact loading, the energy transfer efficiency of carbon fiber cloth-rubber laminated composites depends on factors such as the thickness of the rubber layer, the number of carbon fiber cloth layers, and the degree of material structural looseness. For the S2 specimen, the thickest rubber layer effectively absorbed and dissipated impact energy through internal damping mechanisms. As a result, the impact energy reaching the WCF was relatively low, preventing damage to the bond between the WCF and the rubber matrix. The impact energy transmitted to the fiber bundles lead to loosening of the bundles and an increase in gaps between the warp and weft bundles (Fig. 11b). For the S4 specimen, with most WCF layers and a thinnest rubber layer, the energy transfer capacity reached its maximum. However, excessive force caused delamination of the WCF, creating largest gaps between the rubber layer and the WCF, which led to significant loosening of the fiber bundles (Fig. 11d). It was just these delaminations, gaps, and loosened regions that absorbed much of the impact energy, resulting in a lower transmitted energy ratio. For specimen S3 (Fig. 11c,d), an optimal balance between the carbon fiber layers and rubber matrix filling was maintained, resulting in a compact, well-bonded structure that facilitated efficient stress wave propagation. This behavior was characteristic of stiffer, denser materials like steel or rock, which efficiently transmit energy through their structure. In summary, the superior performance of S3 highlighted the critical role of maintaining a balance between fiber reinforcement and matrix integrity, as evidenced by the uniform stress distribution observed in the true stress-strain curves.

SEM images of the internal microstructure of samples before and after impact testing: (a) and (b) for S2, (c) and (d) for S3, (e) and (f) for S4.

Dynamic impact tests of WCRLC were carried out using an SHPB test system to investigate their mechanical behavior and energy evolution. The validity of the experimental setup was confirmed by the alignment of the strain-time curve derived from the superposition of incident and reflected waves with the transmitted wave curve, where a plateau phase was observed, indicating constant strain-rate loading. The results revealed that WCRLC exhibited significant strain rate sensitivity. Both toughness and peak compressive strength increased at a given strain level as the strain rate increased. Moreover, the dynamic stress-strain behavior of WCRLC was enhanced by incorporating WCF. The peak compressive stress and dynamic toughness were both enhanced with increasing number of WCF layers. Energy dissipation performance improved with WCF integration, as demonstrated by increased in both the dissipated to incident energy ratio and specific energy absorption. The transmitted energy ratio for all composites was found to be less than 1%, emphasizing the dominance of energy reflection over transmission. Notably, the WCRLC with 3 layers of WCF exhibited the highest transmission energy ratio due to balanced fiber-matrix interaction.

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current stdudy are avalilable from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Li, X. et al. SHPB experimental study on dynamic mechanical property of high-damping rubber. Shock Vib. 2018 3128268 (2018).

Kim, S. et al. Nergy-absorption analyses of grooved Al-sheet stacks using modified split Hopkinson pressure bar. Mat. Sci. Eng. C 886 145721 (2023).

Yang, Y. et al. Review of SHPB dynamic load impact test characteristics and energy analysis methods. Processes 11 (10), 3029 (2023).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Li, Z. et al. Research on damage behavior of silicone rubber under dynamic impact. Int. J. Nonlin Mech. 164, 104775 (2024).

Article Google Scholar

Khodadadi, A. et al. Impact response of kevlar/rubber composite. Compos. Sci. Technol. 184, 107880 (2019).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Mbarek, I. A. et al. The dynamic behavior of Poly (methyl methacrylate) based nano-rubbers subjected to impact and perforation: experimental investigations. Mech. Mat. 122, 9–25 (2018).

Article Google Scholar

Thomson, D. et al. A review of the effect of loading rate on the mechanical properties of unidirectional carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites. Compos. Part. Appl. Sci. Manuf. 193 1087739 (2025).

Watanabe, D. et al. Multiscale model for bottom-up prediction of failure parameters of unidirectional carbon-fiber-reinforced composite lamina from the atomic to filament-scales, and its application to failure modeling of open-hole quasi-isotropic composite laminates. Int. J. Solids Struct. 308, 113130 (2025).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Shah, S. et al. Shock response of unidirectional carbon fibre-reinforced polymer composites: influence of fibre orientation and volume fraction. Compos. Part. B Eng. 299, 112438 (2025).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Xu, J. et al. Hybridization effects on ballistic impact behavior of carbon/ aramid fiber reinforced hybrid composite. Int. J. Impact Eng. 181, 104750 (2023).

Article Google Scholar

Turner, P. et al. Three-dimensional woven carbon fibre polymer composite beams and plates under ballistic impact. Compos. Struct. 185, 483–495 (2018).

Article Google Scholar

Liu, Y. et al. Predicting impact induced delamination of FRP laminates. Int. J. Impact Eng. 137, 103436 (2020).

Article Google Scholar

Williamson, D. M. et al. A split Hopkinson pressure bar investigation of Impact-Induced reaction of HMX, RDX and PETN. J. Dynam Behav. Mat. 9 (4), 384–401 (2023).

Article Google Scholar

Mishra, S. et al. Effect of loading characteristics and specimen size in split Hopkinson pressure bar test on high-rate behavior of phyllite. Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 22 (4), 212 (2022).

Article Google Scholar

Oliveira, S. D. A. et al. Adiabatic shear bands produced in a metallic armor, after dynamic compression with a Hopkinson pressure bar. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 17, 2505–2517 (2022).

Article CAS Google Scholar

You, W. et al. Effect of confining pressure and strain rate on mechanical behaviors and failure characteristics of sandstone containing a Pre-existing flaw. Rock. Mech. Rock. Eng. 55 (4), 2091–2109 (2022).

Article ADS Google Scholar

Shahjalal, M. et al. Fiber-reinforced recycled aggregate concrete with crumb rubber: A state-of-the-art review. Constr. Build. Mater. 404, 133233 (2023).

Article Google Scholar

Poulet, T. et al. Strain rate sensitivity of the in-plane mechanical properties of two UHMWPE thin ply composites. Polym. Test. 127, 108187 (2023).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Ye, H. et al. Dynamic splitting tensile properties of crumb rubber modified ultra-high performance engineered cementitious composites (UHP-ECC). Constr. Build. Mater. 455 139183 (2024).

Kravchenko, S. G. et al. An experimental investigation on low-velocity impact response and compression after impact of a stochastic, discontinuous Prepreg tape composite. Compos. Pt A-Appl Sci. Manuf. 149, 106524 (2021).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Mei, J. et al. Mechanical behaviors of the carbon fiber reinforced X-core sandwich structure under the dynamic compression. Constr. Build. 303, 116341 (2023).

CAS Google Scholar

Wu, C. et al. Mechanical properties and durability of textile reinforced concrete (TRC)-A review. Polymers 15 (18), 3826 (2023).

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Zheng, C. S. et al. High strength and high damping CFRP composites with co-curing viscoelastic sandwich film. Polym. Compos. 45 (13), 11619–11634 (2024).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Sun, J. C. et al. High-velocity impact resistance and energy absorption behavior of Carbon-Kevlar hybrid composite laminates. Polym. Compos. 45 (1), 847–861 (2024).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Aziz, A. R. et al. The effects of high strain-rate and temperature on tensile properties of UHMWPE composite laminates. Compos. Part. C Open 16 100549 (2025).

Omar, M. F. et al. Effect of molecular structures on dynamic compression properties of polyethylene. Mater. Sci. Eng. A‌‌. 538, 125–134 (2012).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Tarfaoui, M. et al. Energy dissipation of stitched and unstitched woven composite materials during dynamic compression test. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 167, 487–496 (2019).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Zhu, X. et al. Split-Hopkinson pressure bar test of silicone rubber: considering effects of strain rate and temperature. Polymers 14 (18), 3892 (2022).

Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar

Feng, W. et al. Compressive behaviour and fragment size distribution model for failure mode prediction of rubber concrete under impact loads. Constr. Build. Mater. 273, 121767 (2021).

Article Google Scholar

Karunarathna, S. et al. Evaluation of the effect of recycled rubber aggregate size on concrete for sustainable applications of rubberised concrete in impact resistant structures: experimental and numerical study. J. Clean. Prod. 374, 133648 (2022).

Article Google Scholar

Khan, M. Z. N. et al. Experimental evaluation of quasi-static and dynamic compressive properties of ambient-cured high-strength plain and fiber reinforced geopolymer composites. Constr. Build. Mater. 166, 482–499 (2018).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Jiang, J. et al. Rate-dependent compressive behavior of EPDM insulation: experimental and constitutive analysis. Mech. Mater. 96, 30–38 (2016).

Article ADS Google Scholar

Kim, D-H. et al. Strain rate dependent mechanical behavior of glass fiber reinforced polypropylene composites and its effect on the performance of automotive bumper beam structure. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 166, 483–496 (2019).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Abrate, S. Impact on laminated composite materials. Appl. Mech. Rev. 44 (4), 155– (1991).

Article ADS Google Scholar

Abrate, S. Impact on laminated composites: recent advances. Appl. Mech. Rev. 47 (11), 517–544 (1994).

Article ADS Google Scholar

Abrate, S. Behavior of composite materials under impact: strain rate effects, damage,and plasticity.ASME appl. Mech. Div-Publ-AMD. 250, 41–50 (2001).

Google Scholar

Cantwell, W. et al. The impact resistance of composite materials-a review. Composites 22 (5), 347–362 (1991).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Kapoor, R. et al. High strain rate compression response of woven kevlar reinforced polypropylene composites. Compos. Part. B-Eng. 89, 374–382 (2016).

Article CAS Google Scholar

Liu, Y. et al. Ablation and mechanical investigation of carbon/rubber woven laminates for ultrahigh temperature applications. Int. J. Mater. Res. 109 (7), 673–676 (2018).

Article ADS CAS Google Scholar

Yang, R. et al. Experimental study on dynamic mechanics and energy evolution of rubber concrete under Cyclic impact loading and dynamic splitting tension. Constr. Build. Mater. 262, 120071 (2020).

Article Google Scholar

Download references

This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China Grant No.52074082 and National Training Program of Innovation and Entrepreneurship for Undergraduates (202410145080).

College of Information Science and Engineering, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China

Haining Gao

School of Metallurgy, Northeastern University, Shenyang, 110819, China

Yong Li

Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Haining Gao conducted the experiments and wrote the main manuscript text and Yong Li was responsible for the experimental design and manuscript review.

Correspondence to Yong Li.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

Gao, H., Li, Y. Dynamic mechanical response evaluation of woven carbon fiber reinforced rubber laminated composites under high strain rates. Sci Rep 15, 16711 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-01771-z

Download citation

Received: 23 January 2025

Accepted: 08 May 2025

Published: 14 May 2025

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-01771-z

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative